Kohinoor Diamond: The stone, The controversy, The legend

The stone
Prince Albert (Prince Consort) and Sebastian Garrard stated that the Koh-i-noor was badly cut, it is rose-not-brilliant-cut. It was decided to seek the advice of practical and experienced diamond cutters. A small steam engine was set up at Garrard's shop, while two gentlemen, Messrs Coster, Mr. Voorzanger and Mr. Fedder, travelled to London to undertake the re-cutting of the diamond. The Koh-i-noor was embedded in lead, two weeks later, after examining the stone. Mitchell thought that it had lost nearly all its yellow colour and become much whiter. The re-cutting took 38 days and cost £8000 ($40,000). The final result was an oval brilliant diamond weighing 108.93 metric carats, which meant a loss of weight of just under 43 per cent. Its was now in stellar brilliant-cut, possessing the regular 33 facets, including the table, while the pavilion has eight more facets than the regular 25 bringing the total number of facets to 66. 

In 1853, it was mounted on a magnificent tiara for the Queen, which contained more than two thousand diamonds. Five years later, Queen Victoria ordered a new regal circlet for the diamond. In 1911, Garrards made a new crown that Queen Mary wore for the coronation - it contained diamonds, among them the Koh-i-noor. In 1937, this was transferred to the crown made for Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, based on Queen Victoria's regal circlet and is set in a Maltese Cross at the front of the crown. 

The controversy
The 20th century saw a war of words over Koh-i-noor and its rightful ownership. In 1947, the government of India asked for the return of the diamond. Also, the Congress Ministry which ruled Orissa staked claim to the stone, saying it belonged to the Lord Jagannath. Ranjit Singh's treasurer mentioned that it was the property of their estate. Pakistan's claim to the diamond was disputed by India. Shortly thereafter, a major newspaper in Teheran stated that the gem should to be returned to Iran. 

Sir Olaf has pointed out that the Koh-i-noor had been in Mogul possession in Delhi for 213 years, in Afghan possession in Kandahar and Kabul for 66 years and in British possession for 127 years. Historically, it maybe difficult to pass judgement on the validity of the various claims, but on the other hand, from a gemological aspect, as a paper report said, the Indian claim is the most valid because it was in that country that it was mined. 

The legend 
Legend goes that Sun God gave this gem to his disciple Satrajit, but his younger brother Persain snatched it from him. A lion in the forest killed Persain and Jamavant took this gem from the body of Persain and delivered it to Lord Krishna, who restored it to Satrajit. Later, this jewel again came back into the hands of Lord Krishna as dowry when Satrajit gave the hand of his daughter Satyabhama in marriage to him. Lord Krishna gave it back to the Sun God .The Koh-i-noor came into the hands of numerous rulers till it was possessed by Porus, the king of Punjab, who retained the diamond after a peace treaty in 325 BC when Alexander left India. 

Chandragupta Maurya (325-297 B.C.) became the next possessor and passed it on to his grandson Ashoka who ruled from 273-233 B.C. Later it slipped into the hands of Raja Samprati of Ujjain (Ashoka's grandson). This jewel remained in the custody of Ujjain and the Parmar dynasty of Malwa. When Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316A.D.) defeated Rai Ladhar Deo, the ruler of Malwa in 1306 AD, he acquired the diamond. From this stage up to the time of Mughal Emperor Babur, the history of this precious stone is lost once more. Koh-i-noor comes to light again in year 1526.

Humayun is said to have given the stone to the Shah of Persia for giving him refuge after he lost to Sher Shah. From 1544 to 1547, the Koh-i-noor remained in the possession of Shah Tehmasp of Iran. The Shah sent the Koh-i-noor along with other precious gifts to Burhan Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar (Deccan) for the rulers of the Deccan - Ahmednagar, Golkunda and Bijapur regarded the King of Persia as their religious head. This stone remained in the possession of the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmednagar and the Qutb Shah dynasty of Golkunda in the Deccan for a period of 109 years. How it came back to the Mughals is another gap in history. 

After Aurangzeb, this diamond remained consigned into the coffers of the Mughal treasury from 1707 to 1739 A.D. Muhammad Shah Rangila (1719-1748) used to carry this wonder diamond with him in his turban. Nadir Shah got hold of Koh-i-noor when he ransacked Delhi in the 1700s and it went to his successors, landing in the hands of the Afghan ruler Shah Shuja who handed it to Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1813.

The Koh-i-Noor left the shores of India on April 6, 1850, and on reaching London on July 2, 1850, it was handed over to the Board of Directors of the East India Company. Sir J.W. Logg, the Deputy Chairman of the East India Company, presented it to Queen Victoria. The queen recorded in her journal: "The jewels are truly magnificent. They had also belonged to Ranjit Singh and had been found in the treasury of Lahore.... I am very happy that the British Crown will possess these jewels for I shall certainly make them Crown Jewels".

Many still await the many treasures which were "stolen" by the British Raj, and no one knows how long the wait will be. But today, if you happen to visit London, please make a stopover at Tower of London and look at the Crown Jewels for the Queen and the Koh-i-noor placed in her crown up front inside a Maltese cross.

Koh-i-noor Diamond, a Mountain of Light

The anniversary of Koh-i-noor reaching the shores of England draws near again. A brilliant diamond, the 'Koh-i-noor's trail is littered by misery, unhappiness and war.

There was a period when Indian diamonds were very famous the world over. These included the Koh-i-noor, Orlov, the Great Moghul, Darya-i-noor, Indore pears, Shah and Arcots. These were all part of the treasure houses of the great emperors of India. Today, they are all in the hands of outsiders.

The legendary Koh-i-noor has been in the eye of the storm ever since it left the hands of its original owners - a diamond which was never bought or sold, but changed many hands. Koh-i-noor has left a trail that speaks of greed, power, murder, mayhem and unhappiness.

According to all references, Koh-i-noor was never that great to look at in its early days. It was just another diamond that was dull, non-sparkling and a little yellow in appearance.

Many legends say that the Koh-i-noor was mined in India, and at least 4,000 years old. It received a mention in the 1300s, when it was named in the Baburnama. One account states that Babur got his hands on the diamond in Gujarat; another says he got it in the Deccan. But when Babur came to Agra in May 1526, the ruler Vikramaditya most likely gave him the great diamond. There is also evidence that his son Humayun carried a large diamond that his father had handed back to him at Agra and was known as Babur's diamond for the next 200 years.

There are still so many unresolved questions surrounding the precious stone. Many believe that the Koh-i-noor was also the Great Mogul and that Babur's diamond was separate; others say the Koh-i-noor and Babur's diamond were one and same, while the rest identified it with both Babur's diamond and the Great Mogul. Information gathered over the years shows that in fact, three diamonds existed: - the Great Mogul – was the Orlov, weighing 189.62 metric carats, in Kremlin; and Babur's diamond – was the Darya-i-noor, weight 175 gm and 195 metric carats, the Iranian Crown Jewels; and the Koh-i-noor re-cut, Crown Jewels, England.

When the peacock throne was handed over to Nadir Shah, the hiding place of this diamond was given away. A member of Mohammad Shah's harem gave away the hiding place of Koh-i-noor. It is said that the Shah kept it hidden in his turban. So, Nadir Shah devised a plan - he ordered a grand feast to coincide with the restoration of Mohammed Shah to his throne. During the feast Nadir Shah suddenly proposed an exchange of turbans, a sign of brotherly ties and eternal friendship. Mohammed Shah was hardly likely to resist. After the exchange, Nadir Shah entered his private apartment only at night, where he unfolded the turban and found the diamond concealed within. When he set his eyes on it, he exclaimed "Koh-i-noor", meaning "Mountain of Light".

The next sixty years of its history are the most violent and bloodstained. The final owner was Maharaja Duleep Singh, son of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, in the backdrop of the two Sikh Wars leading to the annexation of the Punjab by the British. The hoisting of British flag was on March 29th, 1849 Lahore where Punjab was formally proclaimed a part of the British Empire in India. One of the terms of the Treaty of Lahore was:- "The gem called the Koh-i-noor which was taken from Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk by Maharajah Ranjit Singh shall be surrendered by the Maharajah of Lahore to the Queen of England."

Dr Sir John Login was entrusted with two charges: to take the Koh-i-noor out of the Toshakhana (the jewel house), and also the guardsmanship of the young Duleep Singh. It was formally handed over to the Punjab government of Sir Henry Lawrence (1806-1857), his younger brother John Lawrence (afterwards Lord Lawrence, the man who in February of 1859 would break ground on the future Lahore railroad station), and C.C. Mausel.

The Koh-i-noor sailed from Bombay in H.M.S. Medea. It was put in an iron box and kept in a dispatch box and deposited in the Government Treasury. For security reasons, this piece of news was suppressed, even among officers of the Treasury - and withheld from Commander Lockyer, the ship's captain. HMS Medea's voyage turned out to be a perilous one - cholera broke out on board in Mauritius and the local people demanded its departure. They asked their governor to open fire and destroy the vessel if it did not respond. After leaving Mauritius, a severe gale hit the vessel that lasted for about twelve hours. They reached Plymouth, England, where the passengers and the mail were unloaded, but not the Koh-i-noor, which was forwarded to Portsmouth.

From there, the two officers took the diamond to the East India House, handing it over to the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the company.
Today, diamonds are mined in over 25 countries around the world, on every continent but Antarctica. Most wholesale diamond activity is centered in Europe and New York. Although most diamonds are of the traditional, clear type, diamonds of every color are found naturally. Colored diamonds are the same structurally as normal diamonds, but contain trace amounts of other minerals which give them their special cover.

Death of a King; The terrible legacy of the man who failed the world

Saudi religious authorities have destroyed hundreds of historic structures in the name of religion in Mecca and Medina, and former UN officials have condemned the bulldozing of Ottoman buildings in Bosnia by a Saudi aid agency backed by the Fahd government which claimed they were "idolatrous". ...

Robert Fisk on The terrible legacy of the old man to be buried this afternoon in a desert graveyard of no memorials. Read more in the article published on 02 August 2005 by The Independent.

Heart Surgery for $1 and a Quarter!

Heart surgery for Rs 5 a month

Twenty-year-old Prasanna, a farmer from Tumkur district of Karnataka, would have normally wasted away after he was stricken with a heart disease. However, a model health insurance scheme has provided a ray of hope to thousands like him, besides setting a splendid example of government-private partnership.

Prasanna underwent an open heart surgery for Rs 60 ($1.25), the annual premium for the Yeshasvini health scheme launched in the cooperative sector in 2003. This quiet health revolution reaching out to the have-nots has resulted in medical treatment to more than 85,000 farmers in the last two years. As many as 25,000 farmers have undergone various kinds of operations, including those of the heart, brain, stomach, eyes and the gall bladder, during this period.

Starting from the 800-bedded super-speciality Narayana Hrudalaya Hospital on the outskirts of Bangalore, it now reaches out to farmers through 170 hospitals across the state.

The scheme came into being ironically at a function where its originator — the Hrudalaya hospital founder and heart surgeon, Dr Devi Shetty — was invited to endorse a milk product. Dr Shetty, a foreign trained cardiologist who went on to become Mother Teresa's personal cardiac surgeon and then an unabashed advocate for providing modern health care to the poor, asked his hosts the Karnataka Milk Federation (KMF) to support a path-breaking idea. What he had to offer to the KMC's Managing Director was this: "I will extend health benefits to all your two million employees for just Rs 5 a month"

Fortunately, for the farmers and Karnataka, the then Chief Minister S M Krishna was also at the function. When this scheme was suggested to him by the KMF Managing Director, he asked his government to fine-tune it. So was born the Yeshasvini (meaning Victor) health programme with KMF members as its first beneficiaries. The scheme was extended to other cooperatives and now covers around 17 lakh farmers in the state.

The government jacked up the premium to Rs 7.50 a month for each member by contributing the extra Rs 2.50 from its own coffers. The manner in which the Yeshasvini scheme took off is also unique. The insurance fee was collected upfront for a year so that initial needs for funds could be minimised. The state government, on its part, made its infrastructure of post offices available to collect the Rs 5 premium, and issue a "Yeshasvini member card".

The initial task of getting hospitals to participate and selling the idea to the cooperatives was conducted by the Trust, but the daily operations were later handled by a third party, which also coordinated payments to hospitals.

Speaking about the scheme, Dr Shetty says out of the 85,000 who had received treatment under the scheme in the last two years, 25,000 had been operated upon. Besides recognising 170 hospitals, the Yeshasvini Trust also recognises four heart hospitals in the state for heart operations.

The scheme covers nearly 1,700 different types of operations which include operations of the stomach, gall bladder, eyes, brain and uterus. The members also get free outpatient consultation in all Yeshasvini recognised hospitals, besides getting discounts on outpatient investigations.

Dr Shetty says the scheme can be easily replicated elsewhere with the Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu governments in dialogue with the Trust to include cooperatives in their states in this programme.

"All it needs is 10 lakh members who have come together for some other reason other than healthcare like a cooperative society or a grameen bank. A monthly premium of Rs 10 to Rs 15 should be collected for the whole year and deposited in the account of the charitable trust responsible for implementation of the scheme. Lastly, recognised hospitals should offer comprehensive packages for the operation so that patients are not charged extra in case of complications".

Dr Shetty says Narayana Hrudalaya is ready to carry out the entire process of launching the scheme free of cost using its expertise and infrastructure in case any state government or organisation desires so. Trained at the Guy's College in Britain, Dr Shetty left a promising career to come back to Calcutta to work on pioneering low-cost heart surgery.

This led to the establishment of the Rabindranath Tagore International Institute of Cardiac Sciences in Kolkata in the nineties and the foundation of Narayana Hrudalaya in 2000 in Bangalore. He has not stopped at building world-class institutions which are aimed at providing quality health care to the underprivileged. He has instituted telemedicine to provide cardiac care free of cost to the poor by roping in ISRO.

Narayana Hrudalaya is also in the process of being declared a deemed university for postgraduate medical degrees and is on the road to becoming a health city, the dream goal of Dr Shetty.

How did he go about it?

"I realised that the bulk of the money of hospitals is earned from heart treatment and that needed to be reduced. We at Narayana Hrudalaya have done just that. We have gone in for large-scale operations and are currently performing 23 surgeries everyday. In Calcutta we are performing around eight surgeries everyday. This has reduced costs to Rs 65,000 for a bypass surgery", he said.

by Jangveer Singh

Jews in Cochin, India

The Cochini Jews

The second Jewish community of India is called 'Cochini Jews'. They are called Cochini Jews because they lived in the city of Cochin in south India. But actually the first settlement of the Cochini Jews wasn't in Cochin but a little north from Cochin in the town of Kudungallur (formly Cranganore).

Like the Bene Israels, the arrival time of the first Cochini Jews isn't clear. But one fact is sure about the Cochini Jews, that they weren't a single emigration. At different times Jews arrived and settled in south India at Kudungallur. According to one version the first forefathers of the Cochini Jews arrived in India during the King Solomon's period. King Solomon had commercial business with a kingdom probably existing in the present state of Kerala in south India. Other version claims that the Cochini Jews are from the Lost Tribes. Another version claims that the Cochini Jews arrived in India after they were exiled from Land of Israel by Nebuchadnezzar. Later on in the history Jews from Spain, arrived in Cochin. The Spanish Jews lived separately from the veteran Jews and considered them as Indian proselytes to Judaism. The Keralans take pride in the fact that the kingdoms of Kerala were world famous and merchants from around the world frequently visited Kerala, since the times of King Solomon and later on Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Chinese and others. Among the merchants, also arrived in Kerala many Jewish merchants and some of them settled in Kerala. The main center of the Jewish community in Kerala was at Kudungallur (referred to in English as Cranganore). The existence of the Jewish community in south India was known to other Jewish communities outside India and some other Jewish merchants also arrived in India. The Jewish merchants were influential community in their state and outside their state and were main reason for the prosperity in their kingdom. As a gratitude for their contribution to the kingdom, the ruler Sri Parkaran Iravi Vanmar gave to the head of the Jewish community Joseph Rabban the village of Anjuvannam and pronounced him the Prince of this village. These Jewish rulers had all the rights preserved to the ruling families of the Indian kingdoms. But till today there isn't an agreement among the scholars on the exact date when this 'Jewish kingdom' was established. Different scholars give different dates to the establishment of this principality. Some claim it to be in the 4 century A. D. Others claim it to be at a much later period around10 century A. D. According to the Cochini Jews the 'princely rights' (written on copper plates and therefore called Copper Plates) were given to them in 379 A. D.

Another fact not clear is : Which Cochini Jews received the 'Copper Plates'? The Cochini Jews are divided in three groups. The biggest group is called 'Meyuhassim' (meaning 'privileged' in Hebrew) or Malabari Jews (Malabar is the name of the coast on which Kerala is situated). These Jews forefathers are considered to have arrived in India as merchants during the period of King Solomon. The second group is called 'Pardesi' (meaning 'foreigner' in some Indian languages). The Pardesi Jews are Jews who came to Kerala at different periods from different countries namely Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Iran, Spain and Germany. These two groups were merchants and had slaves who were converted to Judaism and later on released from their status as slaves and are called 'Meshuhararim' (meaning 'released' in Hebrew). These groups were sometimes referred to by colors. The 'Privileged' Jews were called 'black' Jews, the 'Pardesi' were called 'white' Jews.

The 'Pardesi' Jews looked at the 'Privileged' Jews as impure Jews and as Jewish proselyte. Both these communities claim that the 'prince' was from their community. The Jewish principality survived till the 16th century A. D. In 1524 the Jews were attacked by Moorish Arabs because of the monopoly Jewish merchants had in some commodities. The Jews who were a principality with no real army deserted their principality and asked for shelter from the king of Cochin. The king received them in his kingdom and so was established the Jewish community of Cochin. The area where they lived and did business is even today called 'Jew Town'.

The Cochini Jews knew all of the Jewish traditions and preserved all Jewish traditions. They were particularly strict of Passover and didn't even allow the non-Jews to touch the cooking utensils during this period. As stated before the Cochini Jews were very influential in their society. Numerically the Cochini Jews at their height were 3000 and that was in the 1940s. Of that the Pardesi were only 200. Today there are about 70 Jews in Cochin.

The story behind the name: Kochi alias Cochin

With its wealth and historical associations and its beautiful settings on a cluster of islands and narrow peninsulas, the fascinating city of Cochin (Kochi) perfectly reflects the eclecticism of Kerala. Cochin is the largest (area 87.341 Sq.Km., population 2589038, census 2001) city in the state of Kerala, India, and is its principal seaport. The original name Kochi was shortened to Cochin by the westerners for easy pronunciation. The city reverted back to its original name Kochi in 1996. This change in name was challenged by the city municipal corporation and officially, the city is still called "Cochin".

It is not known exactly how the name Kochi (Cochin) originated. But many theories exist. Some historians believe that Cochin is a modified form of the word 'Cochazhi' which in Malayalam means 'small lagoon'. Others are of the opinion that 'Kochi' was named so by the Chinese. According to them, traders from the court of the Chinese ruler Kublai Khan, gave Kochi the name of their homeland. Believe it or not, the chinese fishing nets, found here and nowhere else outside China may be sufficient proof to support their belief. Still another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word 'Kaci' meaning 'harbour'. Cochin city consists of the mainland Ernakulam, the islands of Willingdon, Bolgatty and Vypeen, Fort Kochi and Mattancherry. Cochin - The Queen of Arabian Sea is one of the most interesting cities of India and has one of the finest natural harbours in the world.

The Cochin Harbour
The harbour is the nucleus around which Cochin has grown to become the Queen of the Arabian Sea. Cochin earned a significant position on the world trading routes after the world famous port at Kodugallur (Cranganore) was destroyed by massive flooding of the river Periyar in 1340 AD. Records show that Kodugallur/Cranganore was known to the Arabs and Chinese traders for centuries. After the Kodugallur port was destroyed, the forces of nature created the harbour at the nearby city - Kochi. Kochi then started to grow and soon developed into a major trading point dealing in pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, etc. which were and still are famous for their quality.

The Chinese, Arabs, British, Dutch and Portugese helped Cochin to emerge as a bustling centre of commercial activity, connecting the mainland to the rest of the world. Cochin owes a lot to great travelers, scholars and traders like Fa Hien, Vasco da Gama, Sir Robert Bristow etc. to her present form of existence

Princely State of Kochi
Over the centuries , the princely state of Kochi came under numerous empires. The original local rulers were dominated by the Portugese, Dutch , British and even the Zamorin of Kozhikode (Calicut). Around 1530 AD , under the Portugese, Kochi grew into a prosperous town. The ruler of Kochi gave the Portugese, permission to build a fort at Kochi called 'Manuel Kotta' - which is the first European fort in Kochi .

The Dutch invasion began around 1653 and by 1663 they emerged victorious over the Portugese. The Dutch then built Fort Williams here . The Dutch were defeated by the great ruler of Mysore - Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. But at last, when the whole nation lost to the British regime, Kochi too became a part of the British colony in 1814. The magificient forts built here were destroyed by the British. Under the supervision of Sir Robert Bristow, Kochi was developed into a major harbour and the Willingdon Island was created. Willingdon Island now accommodates the Cochin Port and the Head Quarters of Southern Naval Command apart from a host of other trading and commercial organisations .

After India became independent in 1947, the state of Kerala was formed by the unification of provinces Kochi, Malabar and Travancore in 1956. The Corporation of Cochin was formed in 1967 by the merger of the towns - Fort Kochi, Mattanchery, Ernakulam and many nearby villages. At present, Cochin is one of the most important industrial, trading and commercial centre of South India.

Early Political Agitations in Cochin

As in Travancore, in Cochin too the desire for good government asserted itself even in the early days of British rule. A notable instance of an organised political move to change the status quo was in 1834. This was against the corrupt and inefficient administration of the Diwan, Sankara Menon. There was a similar move against Diwan Venkata Rao who had also proved himself to be unpopular.

The National movement in British India under the leadership of the Indian National Congress had its echoes in Cochin. A Committee of the Indian National Congress was functioning in Trichur, even as early as 1919. Several congressmen from the state took part in the various Non Co-operation movements and Civil Disobedience movements carried on under Gandhiji's leadership..

The most spectacular of the agitations in Cochin was the one organised in Trichur town in 1936. It was a protest against the decision of the Cochin Government under the Diwan Sir.R.K.Shanmukham Chetti to entrust the distribution of electricity in the town to a private company. This helped to bring the people of all castes and communities on a common platform. It was a truly popular movement.The Government of Cochin adopted repressive measures to put down the agitation and ultimately it fizzled out.

In the late thirties the Cochin District Congress Committee actively participated in the public life of Cochin. While in Travancore the Government tried to suppress the political agitations for responsible government in that state, its counterpart in Cochin adopted an enlightened policy of meeting the demand in stages.

A scheme of Diarchy on the pattern under the Montague-Chelmsford reforms was introduced in Cochin. A popularly elected Minister chosen by majority vote from among the members of the Cochin Legislative Council was given charge of certain Departments of the state Government. In the elections held under the new scheme two distinct groups emerged in the Cochin legislature viz the Cochin Congress, under the leadership of Ambat Sivarama Menon and the Cochin State Congress under Dr.A.R.Menon.

The experiment in Diarchy did not satisfy the progressive sections of the population of Cochin. Hence in 1914 a new organisation called the Cochin State Praja Mandal was formed with declared objectives of starting an agitation for the achievement of responsible government. The "Quit India" movement of 1942 tied to the revival of political activity in Cochin. Several demonstrations and meetings were held in the State under the auspices of the Praja Mandal and many of its active workers were arrested. The movement gave an opportunity to the Praja Mandal to rehabilitate itself.

In the general elections held to the Cochin Legislative Council in 1948, the Praja Mandal returned with a clear majority. By this time the organisation had merged in the Indian National Congress and hence the First Congress Ministry assumed office in Cochin with Ekkanda Warrier as Chief Minister. During his tenure of office, the state of Cochin was merged with Travancore, and the new state of Travancore-Cochin came into existence. The Gateway to Kerala

The Early History of Cochin

The early history of Cochin is shrouded in obscurity. Inscriptions and literary works give us the names of some of the early rulers of the illustrious dynasty that once ruled Cochin. Unni Rama Koil I was the ruler of Cochin when the Portuguese captain Cabral, landed in Cochin. Under him the trade facilities were graanted to the Portuguese and a good relationship was established. Under Unni Rama Koil II the friendship with the Portuguese was strengthened and Cochin rose to political prominence. Vira Kerala Varma, the next ruler, kept up friendly relations with the Portuguese, but the plunder of the temple of Palluruthi imposed a heavy strain on their relations. It was during his reign that the war with the Vadakkumkur took place. It was to Vira Kerala Varma that the Portuegse presented the palace newly built by them at Mattancherryin 1555 A.D. The dynasty that ruled Cochin was 'Perumpadappu Swarupam' because Cochin was that part of Kerala which came under the eldest son of Cheraman Perumal's sister by Perumpadappu Nambudiri.

Cochin was a powerful kingdom in the years immediately following the disintegration of the Kulasekhara empire. But, its power gradually weakened due to dissensions in the royal family and the frequent invasions of the Zamorin. Four or five centuries of rivalry between these two powers was an important factor in the politics of Kerala. Thus at the time of the arrival of the Portuguese in Kerala, Cochin presented the picture of a house divided against itself. It was also engaged in a bitter conflict with the powerful Zamorin of Calicut. Vira Kerala Varma was succeeded by Kesava Rama Varma, the most outstanding ruler of Cochin in the Portuguese period. His was a long and eventful reign. He patronised poets and men of letters. It was during the reign of this ruler that the Jews settled in Cochin and built the Jew Town near the Raja's Palace. The reign saw a successful popular revolt against the Portuguese who had got the whole of the customs duties levied at Cochin assigned to them by the King through coercion. The famous Synod of Diaper (1599) was a notable event of this period. Kesava Rama Varma is believed to have died during his pilgrimage to Benares. The death being attributed due to natural causes.

Ravi Varma, Vira Kerala Varma I, Goda Varma, Vira Raja Varma and Vira Kerala Varma II had uneventful reigns. Vira Kerala Varma's immediate successor was Rama Varma, and on his death Rani Gangodhara Lakshmi was appointed as Regent. She was the only woman who exercised ruling powers in the long history of the Cochin royal house. Rama Varma an adoptee from Vettanad, ascended the throne at the end of the regency. This ruler was killed in the fight before the Mattancheri palace in 1662 A.D. Goda Varma, another adoptee from Vettatnad who came to the throne in 1662, was overthrown by the Dutch after the surrender of the Cochin fort in 1663 and Vira Kerala Varma of the Mutha Tavazhi was installed on the throne of Cochin.

During the reign of Vira Kerala Varma began the period of subordination of Cochin to the Dutch. In March 1663 the first treaty between the Raja of Cochin and the Dutch East India Company was concluded. The Cochin ruler placed himself and his kingdom under the protection of the Dutch. In February 1665 a treaty was signed between the Dutch Company and the members of the Cochin royal family and Paliath Achan restricting adoption to the Cochin family from the Mutha Tavazhi and Chazhur branches. In September 1674 A.D. there was a fresh treaty prescribing allowances for the Cochin princes and bringing the Kingdom under the effective control of the Dutch. Under an agreement of May 1678 the Paliath Achan as Prime Minister was to look after the affairs of the kingdom of Cochin under the guidance of the Dutch. The King was reduced to the status of an ornamental figure-head. The Vettatnad faction was defeated by the Dutch. This period saw a commercial treaty between the Zamorin and the Dutch. This was a period of intense disappointment to the rulers of Cochin..

Ravi Varma I, an adoptee from the Chazhur branch was the next ruler. He conveyed to the Dutch his feeling of displeasure at the growing friendship with the Zamorin. In the reign of the next ruler, Rama Varma I, a treaty was concluded between the Dutch and Cochin under which the Raja was allowed a share of the customs duties. The war between Calicut and Cochin continued for nine years during the rule of Rama Varma. By the treaty of 1710, which terminated the war, some of the territories taken away from Cochin were given back to that State. But in 1715 the Zamorin renewed the military operations in the Cochin territory. The war was ended by the treaty of 1717 A. D for peaceful co-existence. Raja Rama Varma got back from the Zamorin all his ancestral territories except Perumpadappu and a few villages in Vanneri.

Ravi Varma II, the next ruler, was a weak ruler. The local nobles rose frequently in armed rebellion against his authority and the king had to spend much of his time in suppressing these rebellions. The Raja dismissed the Paliath Achan from the Prime Ministership of Cochin. With the approval of the Dutch the chief of Paliyam committed several acts of highhandedness and incurred the displeasure of the Raja and the Dutch Company. The estates of the chief lying outside Chennamangalam were confiscated. Meanwhile, the Paliyam Chief died and a new Achan succeeded to the post. The new chief apologised for the misdeeds of his predecessor and was reinstated to all the possessions and dignities of his ancestor.

Rama Varma II, the next Cochin King, was notoriously weak and oppressive. He came into clash with the Anchi Kaimals who were consequently given protection by the Dutch. The reign saw the rise in the power of the Paliath Achan and an increase in the extent of the estates owned by his family.

Rama Varma was succeeded by Kerala Varma and then by Rama Varma III. In the reign of the latter ruler, the members of the Chazhur branch rose in revolt, and to strengthen relations with Travancore. The reign of Kerala Varma saw the Mysorean invasion of Kerala. The Cochin Raja agreed to become a tributary of Mysore and to pay a `Nuzzar' of one lakh of pagodas.

Rama Varma IV was the next ruler of Cochin. He was a weak prince. Iin 1769 he relinquised all his authority to Dharma Raja, the next prince who was 26 years old at that time. The prince who was thus entrusted with administrative responsibility was a person of extraordinary ability and is known in history as Saktan Tampuran. Though he formally ascended the throne in 1790 A.D., he was in full charge of the administration of the State from 1769 onwards. During the reign of Rama Varma, the Raja of Cochin was called upon by Tipu Sultan to play the role of a mediator between Mysore and Travancore. This was done with a view to securing the subordination of the latter State to the former. But the Raja's effort only met with rebuff. Tipu brought large areas of Cochin territory under his control. Immediately after the exit of the Sultan, the Cochin Raja threw off his allegiance to Mysore and entered into a treaty with the English East India Company in January 1791.

Rama Varma V, popularly called Saktan Tampuran - had in the meantime ascended the throne. He was an able administrator, diplomat and statesman. He followed the same policy in Cochin which Marthanda Varma followed towards the feudal nobles in Travancore. The reign of Saktan Tampuran was an epoch of economic and social progress in the history of Cochin. Syrian Christians who were settled in the chief towns carried trade and contributed to the commercial prosperity of the state. The Raja took steps to provide them with all amenities for carrying on trade. Markets were opened in all major cities. Special attention was bestowed on the repair and renovation of temples. Saktan Tampuran also took interest in the exceution of public utility works such as roads, bridges, lakes, rest houses etc. Irrigation works received special attention. Justice was administered without fear or favour in the Cochin kingdom during the reign of Saktan Tampuran. There was complete security of person and property as robbers and dacoits were relentlessly suppressed. Thus, on the whole, the reign of Saktan Tampuran was an important epoch in the history of Cochin. Like the reign of Marthanda Varma in Travancore,it saw the end of the feudal era in Cochin and the beginnings of a highly centralised administration under the personal supervision and guidance of the ruler.

The period immediately following the death of Saktan Tampuran was one of political turmoil and hence very little progress could be achieved in the field of administration. The failure of the revolt of the Paliath Achan led to the installation of his rival Kunhikrishna Menon, with the approval of the British. Menon mismanaged the affairs of the State and brought it to the verge of financial bankrupcy. In 1812 he was sacked and Col. Munro, the British Resident, was appointed as Diwan of Cochin in order to reorganise the administration of the state on modern lines. From the time of Munro's appointment in 1812 till the abolition of the office of Diwan in 1947 Cochin was served by a long line of able Diwans.

Col. Munro embarked on with a methodical scheme of administrative reorganisation. He stamped out all elements of corruption and lawlessness. Munro modernised the administration of Cochin and paved the way for the progressive reforms introduced by the Diwans of later days.

Nanjappayya who succeeded Munro as Diwan of Cochin was an able administrator. The Western system of treatment was introduced. A proclamation was issued in 1812 forbidding the punishment of slaves by their owner. The survey and settlement of land known as `Kandezhuthu' were started in 1812 and completed in 1827.

Sheshagiri Rao and Edaman Sankara Menon who succeeded Nanjappayya were neither able nor enlightened administrators and hence they failed to leave their mark on the administration of the state. Venkatasubhayya, the next Diwan introduced several important administrative reforms. He issued elaborate regulations which brought the administration of justice in Cochin into line with that of British India. The Diwan gave priority to schemes for agricultural improvement. English schools were established instead of vernacular schools introduced by Col. Munro.

Sankara Warrier who succeeded Venkatasubayya as Diwan held office for 17 years. He was an able administrator and reformer and the reforms introduced by him helped to raise Cochin to the front rank of the well-governed states of India. A comprehensive programme of public works were carried out. In 1854 a proclamation was issued abolishing slavery and emancipating all the slaves in the state. Social services like educational and public health also claimed Sankara Warrier's attention. In 1845 the first Elementary English School was opened at Ernakulam-the nucleus of the Maharaja's College of the present day. The period of the Diwanship of Sankara Warrier was of liberal and progressive administration.

The immediate successor of Sankara Warrier was Venkata Rao, but he was unpopular and was removed from office in 1860. Thottakkat Sankunni Menon, the son of Sankara Warrier, then assumed charge as Dewan and held office for 19 years. His period of office was marked by improvement in every branch of administration. Several new roads, cannals, bridges and railway lines were constructed. The benefits of postal system were made available to the public. The Diwan put an end to the system of compulsory labour for State purposes as well as to the sale and purchase of slaves. These reforms introduced by Sankunni Menon earned for him a high rank among the administrators who laid the foundations of modern Kerala.

Govinda Menon, the brother of Sankunni Menon, was the next Diwan. He continued the liberal policies of his brother. He opened the first school for girls in Cochin state. Some of the disputes with Travancore in regard to boundaries and the right to the management of temples were settled during the period of the Diwanship of Govinda Menon.

Cochin. A.R.Banerji who followed as Diwan took various steps both in technical and administrative fields. J.W.Bhose who succeeded A.R.Banerji gave his attention to agrarian reforms. T.Vijayaraghavachari took genuine interest in the advancement of the backward classes. The industrialisation of Cochin was also given special attention.

Cochin came to have its Legislative council during the Diwanship of P.Narayana Menon under T.S.Narayana Iyer and C.G.Herbert.

Sri. R.K.Shanmukham Chetti was Diwan of Cochin from 1935 to 1941. His period of office was marked by all round administrative progress. The Cochin Secretariat was organised on modern lines under his personal guidance. The Cochin Harbour development Scheme was successfully completed. The Cochin High Court was formally opened on June 18, 1938 at Ernakulam. The most significant reform of R.K.Shanmukham Chetti was the introduction of Diarchy under which the administration of certain departments of the State Government was entrusted to a Minister responsible to the State Legislature.

R.K.Shanmukham Chetti retired in 1941. A.F.W.Dixon, Sir.George Boag and C.P.Karunakara Menon were the next Diwans of Cochin. Under them Cochin passed through the period of political agitations which culminated in the attainment of a responsible government in 1947. The Gateway to Kerala

How to prevent Indian media from obscene MMS?

Everyday a new MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service) is being created and circulated in India. No one knows who is making and why he or she is making .

Why MMS became Media Hype in India?

Bollywood actors these days think twice before venturing into hotels, discos or even to join a friend`s birthday bash -- amateur paparazzi using mobile phone cameras have got them running scared. A series of intimate exposes of film celebrities have rocked the world`s largest movie industry and celebrities are ready to fight back -- with their fists if necessary. Bollywood got its first taste of what a mobile phone camera can do when leading tabloid Mid Day earlier this year published lip-locking pictures it claimed were of top actress Kareena Kapoor and actor boyfriend Shahid Kapoor shot by a fan at a city pub. Both actors strongly denied the pictures were of them though Mid Day continued to back its story. A few months later another clip was circulated, supposedly of an upcoming actress in an intimate love-making pose with her actor boyfriend. Bollywood`s reigning sex siren, Mallika Sherawat, is the latest to be caught in a controversy over MMS phones, which allow the user to create, send and receive text messages that can also include an image, audio or video clip. A graphic new MMS eight-minute clip of a sex act allegedly between Sherawat and a foreigner has been in circulation through mobile phones in India in the past week or so, infuriating the actress who has taken the matter to police.

Many MMS like Mallika Sherawat sex Clip, Kareena - Shaheed Kapoor Smooching etc is getting circulated through cell phones in India on a day to day basis. How can we prevent Indian media from such obscene MMS? Does science and technological advances provide a solution to this problem? Is law-enforcement in India adequate enough to tackle such activity? You may jot down your comments with pointers/links on the web that could shed light into arriving a workable solution to this menace.